Reconstruction Era of the United States Essay Example for Free

reconstruction Era of the United States EssayBy 1865, the Civil War ended with a victory for the juncture all over the secessionist gray states. But with every conclusion comes new beginnings, thus the start of a new chapter American History The Reconstruction. 1865 through 1877 was cognize as the period of Reconstruction. During this time the Confederate States were reintegrated into the Union. Before the Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his forces to the Union General, Ulysses Grant on April 9th, 1865 which actu all(prenominal)y ended the contend, controversy raged throughout sexual relation and coun distort concerning the terms under which the secessionist states would be allowed back into the Union. One prevalent concern was what role the federal government would play in the shaping of the political, economical, and kindly fabrics of the second.Desegregating roughly 4 million recently freed slaves into life in the new south was a controversial issue. Th e issue of slavery is actually what caused the secession of the southern states in 1860 and 1861. This dispute is what led to the start of the civil war. The war had left the south dramatically altered. The newly freed slaves struggled to survive in this new economy all while trying to coincide with an often acrimonious and resentful white population. The ground was left bitterly divided. President Abraham Lincoln believed that the South had already been drastically punished. He favored the lenient approach of Reconstruction. Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction which in turn created the ten percent plan. Lincoln believed that the sooner the nation healed and moved forward, the better off everyone would be.The plan called for pardons to any Confederate who had not held civil office and would swear to support the Constitution and the Union. The states would be readmitted to the coalition once ten percent of their population took oath. Despite Lincoln did no t adequately address how the newly freed slaves were to be accepted into Southern society. The populists and Republicans tended to favor more lenient policies for the south. A fraction of the Republican Party known as the Radical Republicans pushed for harder programs that would punish the south and ensure that the newly freed black slaves would have tally equality with the whites.These Radicals passed the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864 that said states could be readmitted to the union only after 50 percent of voters took an oath however, President Lincoln quickly vetoed this bill. The Freedmens Bureau was then created this helped distribute food, supplies, and land to the freed slaves. On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was famously shot in Fords Theatre in Washington, D.C. by a Confederate sympathizer, John Wilkes Boothe. He passed the following morning. His successor, Vice President Andrew Johnson was a very outspoken opponent of the rich slaveholders in the South. As a Southern Sen ator, he had refused to join the Confederacy.He preferred to preserve the Union. Johnson said he planned to carry out Lincolns Reconstruction Policies, although he believed that the South should be punished for its role in the war. Johnson was welcomed by the Radical Republicans initially they believed he would pursue harsher policies than his preceptor, Lincoln. However, once in office, Johnson adopted a more lenient indemnity than expected. He pardoned many Confederate conduceers. He allowed commanding former Confederates to keep their land and official posts. He argued that it was the responsibility of the states to set policies dealing which rights would be denied to blacks. These were known as the Black Codes. They were enacted in the south and severely limited the rights of the freedmen.Johnsons plan or the Presidential Reconstruction was counted by the Radical Republicans in Congress. The Reconstruction policies became known as the Radical Reconstruction. The Radical Republ icans argued that the main goal of Reconstruction should be to secure the same rights as white citizens for the newly freed slaves. They were enacted in the south and severely limited the rights of the freedmen. The advocates of the Radical Reconstruction included mostly Rapidly Reconstruction. He proposed a more lenient program of Reconstruction. This stemmed from his desires to heal the wounds of the war as quickly as possible. He wanted to put an end to the animosity between the North and South.Under this plan, the federal government was to appoint governors to conduct secessionist states. He offered executive pardons to all southerners minus the high ranking Confederate officials. Johnsons decisions guaranteed that blacks would be forced to struggle to gain equality with the Southern Whites. creation he did not enforce any government control of the southern lands, not much changed in terms of the treatment of the African Americans. As these conditions act to fail at improveme nt for blacks, the moderates were more inclined to agree with the Radical Republicans.The Congress in its new session and with its Republican majority, a stricter version of Reconstitution was passed. In 1867 The First Reconstruction Act was put into place it separated the south into five districts that were to be governed by the U.S. military. It also said the south was to recognize and grant the former slaves before they could reenter the Union. To reassure that this order was followed the second Reconstruction Act was passed this put the military in charge of southern voter registration. During this time the 5th Amendment was also passed permitting all American men the right to vote, including the former slaves.Congress knew Johnson would use all possible power to rule the reconstruction the way he thought it should. Therefore, trying to restrict his powers, in 1867 the Tenure of Office Act was passed which required the president to join with the House and Senate before removin g sexual congressionally appointed cabinet members. Johnson didnt abide to this act causing the Republicans to impeach him in 1868. This is when Ulysses S. Grant was brought into office.Grants personality being inexperienced and extremely passive created many problems and a bad reputation for him. In 1872 his Vice President Schuyler Colfax was forced to step back from office due to his involvement in the Credit Mobilier scandal. In extension to his Vice Presidents flaws his personal secretary assisted in the embezzlement of millions of dollars from the U.S. Treasury. These harmful acts and others drove the Republican Party to split apart and resulting in the formation of encompassing Republicans who wanted to end reconstruction. The Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley for their partys presidential candidate. However, Grant still managed to beat him for the presidential position.In 1873, a series of events including bad loans, and high expectations of the economy, lead th e country into a destructive depression. The depression caused a plethora of lost jobs among the American people. In efforts to help end the depression and prevent inflation congress put an end to coining silver dollars and passed the Resumption Act of 1875. This act removed all paper money from the economy. The depressions economic issues were a major factor in the election of 1874. Many people betrayed on the Republican Party and voted Democrat because of the hard times they experienced during the depression. This change gave the Democratic Party control over the House of Representatives.The radical republicans lost many members therefore lessening their abilities to pass orders. The last legislative act they did pass was the Civil Rights Act of 1875, an effort to try and eliminate racial discrimination. The election putting Democrats in power kicked off the end of Radical Reconstruction. Court Cases such as the Slaughterhouse case which argued against the fourteenth Amendment and the U.S. v. Cruikshank case which discussed issues dealing with the Ku Klux Klan also assisted in the ending of the Radical Reconstruction.There was a quarrel with the outcome of the election in 1876 between Democrat Tilden and Republican convert this resulted in the Electoral count act in 1877.This act created a balanced, equal committee to recount votes. This committee concluded that Hayes won the presidency position. The democrats were outraged with the results of the election and the resulted in the Compromise of 1877. This compromise said that the Democrats would allow Hayes to become President if Federal troops were recede from the south, republican agreed.This removal of troops marked the end of the reconstruction era. The end of the Civil war created a period of time in which the U.S. had to deal with, judicature issues, scandals, and economic hardships. The integration of former slaves with the whites was a task that seemed impossible to achieve. The views and wants of Political Parties and the Presidency position changed during this time. However the North and South were joined again at last.

Restrictive health, safety and technical standards Essay Example for Free

Restrictive health, safety and technical standards Es advanceTechnical Standards Standards and standards-related technical regulations are pervasive features of orbicular commerce, touching an estimated 80 percent of world commodity interchange. These technical specifications make up much of the vocabulary in the exacting language of industry, consumer protection, and government regulation. As such, exotic standards and methods used to assess conformity to standards dirty dog either facilitate efficient international affair and its resultant benefits, or they can impede access to pot markets.Divergent standards peculiar to a nation or region, redundant testing and compliance procedures, unilateral and non-transparent standard setting exercises, and a confusing thicket of early(a) standards-related problems are now recognized as major impediments to innocent trade. For example Vietnams Ministry of Science and Technology publishes a propensity of imports and exports req uiring mandatory quality inspection.Importers and exporters of the products on the list must subject their products to inspection and obtain a permit from the relevant government agencies (such as the Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the Ministry of Industry, the Ministry of Fishery, and the Ministry of Science and Technology) at the meter they go through customs. In the inspection, some products are subject to national standards, some are subject to regulations of the functional agencies, and some are subject to both. china is very concerned with the transparency of Vietnams mandatory quality inspection system. Language Barrier Communication is the key to building successful business relationships. However, communication becomes Gordian when more than one language is involved. Interpreters and translators can play a critical role assisting exporters with the delivery of key information to prospective customers and clients. Interpreters and translators fulfill different roles in different cultures. For example, an interpreter in North America or europium is expected to relay an unbiased account of the information to the audience.In Japan, however, an interpreter exit translate the language and quite likely interpret gestures, context and meanings for those in attendance. Exporters should enlist the services of an experienced, fluent translator or interpreter who is also immersed in the culture of the target market. Working as a team, the exporter and the interpreter can review the text, presentation or other materials together to ensure that in that location testament be no difficulties with background information, technical terms or potentially ambiguous messages. Non- obligation Barriers.Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) refer to the wide range of policy interventions other than border tariffs that usurp trade of goods, services, and factors of production. Most taxonomies of NTBs include market-specific trade and domestic policies affecting trade in that market. Extended taxonomies include macro-economic policies affecting trade. NTBs have gained importance as tariff levels have been reduced worldwide. Common measures of NTBs include tariff-equivalents of the NTB policy or policies and count and frequency measures of NTBs.These NTB measures are subsequently used in various trade models, including temperance equations, to assess trade and/or welfare effects of the measured NTBs. Conclusion The world has a long history of international trade. In fact, trading among nations can be traced back to the earliest civilizations. Trading activities are directly related to an improved quality of life for the citizens of nations involved in international trade. It is safe to say that nearly every person on earth has benefited from international trading activities.This may be a good time to reinforce the idea that trade barriers are designed to protect some industries but, in fact they may hurt other i ndustries or even consumers. Economists have found that sanctions dont often kick in their political objectives and they come with high costs. A good example is the steel tariff obligate by the Bush administration, on inappropriate-made steel. President Bush imposed the tariffs, ranging from 8 percent to 30 percent, on some kinds of foreign steel in March 2002, in order to help the U. S. steel industry deal with foreign steel producers.Many U. S. manufacturing companies that use steel, including manufacturers of auto parts and appliances, say that the steel tariffs have raised costs for manufacturers and caused thousands of manufacturing injusticees. Also, people who buy cars or appliances may have to pay higher prices because of the steel tariffs. The U. S. International Trade Commission recently concluded that the tariffs have caused a $30 million net loss to the U. S. economy. In addition, the European Union is considering retaliatory tariffs against the U.S.TBR (Trade Barri er Regulation) is Europes way of removing obstacles to trade, ensuring that countries abide by the rules of international trade, and providing procedures for resolving international trade disputes. Through the European Commission, its procedures porthole directly with WTO dispute resolution procedures, affecting all countries subject to WTO rules and agreements notably the United States and Japan and whose industries have been the subject of recent international decisions.Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations in the world, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are politically important domestically, such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture and textiles by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greates t proponents.However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs procedures. Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism.This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services. During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic ind ustries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression leading to a collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 main(a) states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the FTAA (Free Trade Area of the Americas) failed largely due to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral transcription on Investment) have also failed in recent years.Bibliography 1. Barriers to entry Coping with protectionism. UK Investment. 18 April 2007 http//www. ukinvest. gov. uk/10415/en_GB/0. pdf 2. Boone, L. , and Kurtz, D. Contemporary Marketing. raw(a) York Dryden Press. 2003 3. Brue, S. , and McConnell, C. Economics. New York McGraw-Hill. 2003 4. Churchill, G. , and Peter, P. Marketing Creating Value for Customers. Austen Press. 2004 5. Czinkota, M. R. , and Ronkainen, I. A. International Marketing. New York Dryden Press. 2005 6. Competition and Market Power.Econoclass Sources for Economics Teachers. 18 April 2007 http//www.econoclass. com/imperfectcompetition. html 7. Deardorff, Alan V. , and Robert M. Stern. Measurement of Nontariff Barriers Studies in International Economics. 2005 8. Debra Ann Skaradzinski. Testing chaotic dynamics via Lyapunov exponents. daybook of Applied Econometrics 207, (2003) 911. 9. Fisher, Ronald, and Pablo Serra. Standards and Protection. Journal of International Economics 52 (2004) 377-400. 10. Farese, L. , Kimbrell, G. , and Woloszyk, C. Marketing Essentials. Mission Hills, CA Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. 2003 11. Henson, Spencer, and John S. Wilson, eds.The WTO and Technical Barriers toTrade, in the Critical Perspectives on the Global Trading System and the WTO series, Northampton, MA Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. 2005 12. match of Standards and Technical Regulations on Trade. Press Release from Commerce Ministry (2003). 18 April 2007 http//www. commerce. gov/opa/press/Secretary_Evans/2003_Releases/March/19_Standards. htm 13. Journal of Behavioral Finance, Vol. 4, No. 2, (2003) Pages 65-70 14. Kee, Hiau Looi, Alessandro Nicita, and Marcelo Olarreaga.Estimating Trade restrictiveness Indices, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3840.2006 15. Kotler, P. , and Armstrong, G. Marketing An Introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ Prentice-Hall. 2004 16. Methodologies, Classifications, Quantification and Development Impacts of Non-Tariff Barriers Note by the UNCTAD Secretariat, Document TD/B/COM. 1/EM. 27/2. (2004). 18 April 2007 http//www. unctad. org/TEMPLATES/meeting. asp? intItemID=3411lang=1m=10489info=not 17.Non-tariff Barriers Centre for Rural Agricultural Development (2003). 18 April 2007 www. econ. iastate. edu/research/webpapers /paper_12703. pdf 18. RSIE Working Papers. University of Michigan.(2005). 18 April 2007 http//www. fordschool. umich. edu/rsie/workingpapers/wp. html 19. The Impact of Regulations on Agricultural Trade.Working Paper, Centre dEtudes Prospectives et dInformations Internationales, Paris. (2003). 18 April 2007 www. econ. iastate. edu/research/webpapers/paper_12703. pdf 20. Trade, Environment and Development. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2005). 18 April 2007 www. unctad. org/trade_env/ 21. Vousden, Neil. The Economics of Trade Protection. Cambridge, UK Cambridge University Press. 2005.

Symbolic Interactionism Blumer

Symbolic Inter treatism BlumerThe essence of society lies in an on-going process of action- non in a posited structure of relations -Blumer, 1969,(p.71)Although emblematical interaction speculation is often applied primarily to the micro level, the structuring of interdependent lines of expression at the meso and macro levels likewise involves contendd definitions developed through interaction. The overall culture of a society is the objective outcome of these sh ared companionable definitions whereby inborn meanings are created, often show in material artifacts of various types, and either sustained or transformed through interaction.Symbolic Interaction-Process Versus StructureMany of the core ideas of symbolical interaction possibleness are grounded in the pi iering work of George Herbert Mead, peculiar(prenominal)ly his perspective regarding the close kin between the mental processes whereby people make sense of their surround and their interaction with one other . This relationship is manifested in the patterns of collaboration among people as they seek to develop shared visitations of the situations they face. It is alike reflected in how ones self-concept develops through awareness of the perspectives of others. In addition, contemporary symbolic interaction theory tie-ins on Charles Horton Cooleys analysis of how ones feelings about oneself (pride or shame, for example) reflect ones sensitivity to the positive or negative reactions of others, especially in primary sort out settings. This is consistent with his often-cited concept of the looking-glass self.Symbolic interaction theory is comparable in nigh ways to Georg Simmels sharpen on the forms of interaction, but symbolic interaction theory goes deeper than Simmels perspective in emphasizing the symbolic medium through which interaction takes place plus the internal mental processes that accompany it. This focus on the subjective level whitethorn be compared to Webers focus on netherstanding the subjective meanings of several(prenominal)(a)s actions. But while Weber moved wellhead beyond the level of individual actions and subjective meanings to deal with broad patterns of institutional and cultural change, many symbolic interactionists resemble Simmel in their strong micro-level focus.Human beings relate to one a nonher and to their environment in terms of interdependent roles they create and sustain. At the c give in of this process are the self-concepts or identities of the individuals involved as they interact and adjust to one another in face-to-face encounters. Human beings are thus transformed into students and t apieceers, friends and lovers, husbands and wives, team players and college graduates, customers and sales people, celebrities and deviants, soldiers and mixer workers, lawyers and police officers, members and outsiders, and so on. Social definitions are crucial level(p) for defining the meaning and kind relevance of man beings b iological characteristics, such as sex, age, and weight, for example. The fondly contrived character of large-scale institutional structures may not be as obvious as in small group relationships or childrens micro-level play worlds, but macro level social institutions are also socially constructed through widely shared subjective definitions that are developed and sustained through interaction. This implies that when subjective definitions and interpretations undergo widespread change, institutional transformation may occur, which then changes the context of subsequent interactions at the micro level. The divisions between micro, meso, and macro levels of analysis are not rigid distinctions. From r various micro-level social circles, networks of social relations extend outward, thus providing an opening to meso and macro levels of the social world.The heritage one share as members of society also includes enduring cultural products and artifacts that view been constructed or repro duced by countless other people far beyond the range of ones own leapinged social circles or someoneal knowledge. Language plain transcends personal micro-level social settings, even though language is actually reproduced regularly in the context of face-to-face interaction as well as in mass media communication. up to now ones adaptation to the objective physical reality of the natural world (like the food one eats) is mediated through the symbols used to define and interpret it. All symbolic interactionists emphasize the micro-level linkages between the subjective consciousnesses, interpersonal interaction, and identity formation, as well as the symbolic and socially constructed nature of the larger social world.Symbolic interaction theory today differs from the pioneering social behaviorism emphasized by Mead in the early part of the twentieth century.Blumers TheoreySymbolic interaction theory, under the influence of Herbert Blumer, was in large part a scathing reaction to ma cro level types of analysis, particularly as reflected in functional theory, and the strong wildness on the notion that peoples behavior is largely determined by social structures. For symbolic interaction theorists, the strong emphasis on culturally scripted norms and send roles was misplaced. This focus seemed to leave little room for individuals to make choices or to ad-lib as they interpret and adjust to the specific situations they face. For symbolic interactionists social structures do not exist as an objective reality that is independent of the actions of its compassionate participants. Instead, all aspects of the social world are negotiated, constructed, and reproduced or sometimes transformed through ongoing processes of interaction and subjective interpretation whereby people mutually shape one anothers perceptions, definitions, and responses to their environment. Within this planetary framework, several different areas of emphasis cease be identify within symbolic in teraction theory. Symbolic interactionist perspective serves as a general framework for role theory, reference group theory, analyses of social perception and person perception, self theory, and dramaturgic theory.Of the various versions of symbolic interactionism, Herbert Blumers (1962) perspective expressed the strongest skepticism regarding macro-level theories such as functionalism. As he put itBy and large, of course, sociologists do not study human society in terms of its acting units, sort of, they are disposed to view human society in terms of structure or agreement and to treat social action as an expression of such structure or organization. Thus, reliance is placed on such structural categories as social system, culture, norms, values, social stratification, status position, social roles and institutional organization.(Blumer, pp.188-189 in Rose, ed. 1962)Blumer coined the term symbolic interaction and promoted Meads strong emphasis on the interrelated processes of mut ual role-taking, interaction, and subjective interpretation that occur as people adjust their actions to one another in dealing with the particular situations they face. This emphasis on the need for people to improvise their responses to their environment and to one another seems to downplay the habits and memories that individuals bring to situations that they encounter over and over. It also seems to push the cultural and institutional framework that might influence their interpretations into the background. Even though social organization, culture, roles, and other structural features of the social world may not determine peoples behavior in a strong sense, such features may nevertheless be taken into consideration, especially in familiar situations. When people repeatedly face similar types of situations, they may employ ready-made responses with hardly a minimal amount of negotiation or reflection. This does not mean that social organization determines peoples behavior as an external force. It does suggest, however, that patterns of interaction and interpretation are not always as fluid as Blumer seems to suggest.People do indeed sometimes face novel situations that are unstructured and ambiguous and so testament need to make a conscious effort to make sense of them as they explore with one another how to cope. In other situations, they may each have their own distinctive ideas on how to do and so will need to negotiate their differences. But in many routine situations they already share an implicit understanding of its salient features and know how to respond. This means that very little negotiation is take ond if any. Regardless of these variations, patterns of social organization, including written rules and examineed authority or power structures, are never automatically self-enforcing. Instead, these structural factors become relevant only to the extent that people remember them and decide how to apply them. Sometimes at that place may be dis cussion and debate regarding whether or how an established rule or custom should apply. If there are large differences in power and authority, the negotiation actually may be quite minimal, as those with relatively less power realize the futility of trying to get those with greater power to see things their way.By pushing social organization, culture, and similar concepts that transcend particular situations into the background, and by emphasizing the fluid and indeterminate nature of the immediate social world, Blumers approach makes it difficult to establish principles of social behavior that apply across different situations or to move from the micro to the macro level. However, other symbolic interaction theorists give to a greater extent emphasis to stable structural categories than Blumer did. These structural influences do not determine behavior from the outside, as external or objective forces, however instead, they are encoded in individuals subjective consciousness and sha red memories and gestateations. Although they may be interpreted to apply in unique ways in different situations, they are nevertheless reflected in participants predispositions regarding how to respond to the specific situations they face.The contrast between Blumers view of the fluid and undetermined nature of the social world versus a more structural version of symbolic interaction theory can be illustrated through the process whereby individuals self-concepts are developed, maintained, and changed. The relation between individuals self-concepts or identities, their social roles, and the reactions of others can be traced back to the pioneering work of Mead and Cooley. modern-day symbolic interactionist theory offers several different strategies for exploring how individuals self-concepts or identities are expressed through the different roles they perform. The following section will deal in more detail with the relation between peoples role performances and their identities.Blu mers image of the fluid and negotiated character of the social world implies that identities and social roles are not fixed but instead are largely improvised in each encounter as individuals seek to align their own self-concepts and intentions with the expectations of others. In contrast to Blumer, a more structural version of symbolic interaction theory puts greater emphasis on the standardized and routine expectations and behaviors of various roles. With this alternative focus social invigoration is viewed as having a higher level of predictability than implied in Blumers perspective, especially in routine situations. Although behavior is not determined by social roles, with no room for individual variations, this structural version is closer to the conventional forms of sociological analysis that Blumer criticized. While roles may not be scripted in detail, there are expressed guidelines and expectations that people tend to follow. Peoples self-concepts are multidimensional. T hey may reflect roles associated with various personal characteristics as well as with the social positions they occupy. These roles include, for example, those associated with gender, age, family status, occupation, race or ethnicity, residential location, unemployed time pursuits, general lifestyle preferences, and so on. Such roles are likely to be partially structured by general cultural expectations as well as by specific expectations that develop among people who interact on a regular basis. Even so, there is room for considerable improvisation in most cases as individuals express their own unique individuality and seek to satisfy their current needs and concerns.There are three fundamental set forth underlying a symbolic interactionist perspective and it is to Blumers great credit that these expound receive emphasis in his work. All are in fact substitution to Meads arguments, even while none of them originates with Mead.The first of these premises holds that an adequate account of human behavior must incorporate the perspective of the actor and cannot rest simply on the perspective of the observer alone. The second of these premises asserts the priority of social interaction and the derivative, emergent nature of both self and social organization from that social process. The third argues that self, or persons reflexive responses to themselves, serves to link larger societal processes to the social interactions of those persons.The first and last of these premises contain between them the justification for insisting that socially formed meanings that are aspects of the subjective experience of persons are not only legitimately but are necessarily part of observers accounts of the social behavior of human beings.Contrary to Blumers position would be the emergent character of social life as well as ignoring the reality in experience of the dialectical relationship of what Mead called the I and the me. However, working from Blumers perspective on the se divisions does not require that one must retreat to phenomenologies of individual minds, or forgo attempts to develop theoretical explanations of social life that have some general applicability.If one accepts interaction as the source and substance of society, i.e., accepting the foundational character of the social process, it will surely be the acceptance of Blumers emphasis on the emergent character of self and social organization. This acceptance in turn implies the citation of some degree of indeterminacy in attempts to foresee what will be from what is at any given moment of that social process. Further, such indeterminacy is principled and not merely a recognition of the incompleteness or inadequacy of present knowledge.The central role of self in mediating the relationship of social process and social behavior, one of the basic premises of symbolic interactionist thought whose emphasis in Blumers work need to be emphasized.Without invoking a concept such as self, attem pts to come to grips with obvious variability of persons behavior in the face of apparent persistence of circumstance-biological, ecological, cultural, or social-are likely to founder similarly in a complementary way the concept of self permits dealing with that variability in specifically social terms.Meta-theoretical Conceptions of BlumerThe metatheoretical ideas proclaim the impossibility of general, predictive sociological theory as a consequence of the centrality of meanings and definitions in the production of human behavior. For Blumer, all social life is actively constructed by participants in the very process of interaction itself because this micro-constructivist process is taken to be descriptive of social life in general, it is also taken to be descriptive of the meanings and the interpretations applying those meanings assumed to be critical for each next step in the processes of interaction. Meanings in that sense are truly emergents, subject to literally continuous re formulation on a moment-to-moment basis. If meanings are indeed central, and if meanings are constructed in and particular to the experience of individual actors, emergent from their ongoing experience, it follows for Blumer that the generality required of the predictive, theoretical concepts in terms of which theoretical arguments are couched cannot exist. Preexistent concepts cannot match the emergent interpretations of actors constructing their lines of social interaction. Given all of this, Blumer concludes, sociology can expect to be able to develop after-the-fact understandings of behaviors that have occurred, but cannot anticipate the development of general explanatory sociological theory in a predictive sense.methodological consequences of BlumerHis metatheoretical argument has methodological consequences. For one thing, it implies the futility of a seek enterprise that is initiated by a priori theory, or that anticipates behavioral outcomes via hypotheses arrived at deduct ively from such theory. For another, it suggests that research methods that fail to focus directly upon actors interpretations by setting up prior procedural or substantive constraints on how issues are formulated or are attacked-experimentation and survey research methods are cases in point-necessarily lack va1idity and the capacity to generate meaningful data. And for yet another, it underwrites the condemnation of the application of mathematical or statistical manipulations of data in efforts to draw from those data their sociological implications, on the grounds that numerical data are necessarily bereft of the meanings that define the essential character of sociological phenomena. Thus along with denying the possibility of explanatory sociological theory, Blumer severely restricts the legitimate range of investigatory (data gathering) techniques as well as analytic methods.Apparently, in his own mind only participatory observation meets his strictures but even that method would not survive a thorough logical analysis of its fit to Blumers methodological arguments.It is important to furrow that Blumers ideas which are fundamental to defining symbolic interactionism do not necessarily lead to the metatheoretical and methodological ends at which he himself arrives. Actors perspectives, the definitions of situations they call into play that are critical to the course and the content of interaction, are not unconstrained. Both the meanings those are possible to invoke in the course of defining situations, as well as the particular meanings from the range of possible meanings that are likely to be invoked, are not random events. They are, on the contrary, subject to the constraints of extant social and cultural systems. Further, there is some reasonable stability over time to the meanings attached to social objects. For practical purposes these do not change willy-nilly or from moment to moment in a way that signifies great change in behavioral outcomes. If th ere were no such stability, if meanings did not in general entail relative constancy from moment to moment, from day to day, even from year to year, there is no way that social life could have the predictability that enables people to live their lives as they do.The fact that meanings can change radically and precipitously does not argue that in general they do change radically and precipitously. This implies that one can indeed formulate general statements or theoretical propositions that go beyond the phenomenologies of single individuals, statements or propositions that are not subject to a priori rejection, whatever their fate may be at the hands of empirical evidence. To recognize that social life is constructed via definitional or interpretive processes and that there are few limits on what constructions are possible does not require one to abjure reasonably strong predictions, or to anticipate that predictions, when based on solid theoretical grounds, will lack credibility or validity. uncomplete does it obviate the recognition that the social process sometimes, perhaps even frequently, crystallizes and stabilizes in a manner that permits the theoretical recognition of selves and social structures that they themselves operate to constrain and limit the possibilities for emergence in social life, that operate to transform possibilities into probabilities.Substantive ideas in BlumerIn substantive terms, it is Blumers treatment or lack thereof of social organization and social structure are both nonessential and highly problematic. For Blumer, society consists of the congeries of lines of individual action, the fitting together of these lines. Individual action is a matter of persons guiding their own action by interpreting the significance of things for that prospective action group action is a matter of aligning individual action through a process of role-taking, i.e., searching out the meaning of others acts by ascertaining what they are doing or inten d to do (Blumer 1969, p. 8).Social organization and social structures enter action only by shaping situations and providing the symbols used in interpreting situations, only as they enter into the process of interpretation and definition out of which pin actions are formed and, in any event, they are less important in modern society than in stabilized, settled societies precisely because in the power there are fewer situations calling for previously regularized and standardized actions.ConclusionThere obviously exist a number of very different senses of what symbolic interaction is substantively and what it implies methodologically. The problem is not that these different senses exist the problem rather lies in the artificial and unnecessary oppositions among them created by the polemics that have historically characterized the literature of symbolic interactionism-the polemics of social movements and embattled minorities, the polemics that define orthodoxies and heterodoxies in s eeking to recruit adherents to the banner being waved by the pure. The fact of multiplicity of alternative viewpoints in itself is healthy self-control, choice, freedom and various other good things spring from alternatives symbolically represented in human experience. But multiplicity of views can be unhealthy if there is no communication across differences, if either structural or cognitive barriers prevent the alternatives from in fact entering the experience of persons, for then each person becomes the prisoner of his or her preferred -perspective. One is then used by perspectives rather than using them and the perspectives themselves are likely to ossify, to become unquestioned Truths and not potentially unaccented ideas subject to logical and empirical examination and reformulation.

The church: An agent for transformation

The church service service An agent for transformationIntroductionWith an overwhelming globe with regard to orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in South Africa there is an urgent response needed to assist these children. check to various authors the local church does possess the authorization and mandate to be a key part-player and catalyst in creating sustainable livelihoods. Such an affaire could assist in improving the quality of conduct for the communities and its children in question (Makoko, 2007 Mitchell, 2001 Singletary, 2007).According to the Bible (Matthew 2818, 19 Matthew 2237-39), the mission of the church is to decl ar and terasstrate the gospel to a sinful and a paltry world, with the primary aim to build the Kingdom of god. Perkins (1995111) refers to a beat when the church was the primary source of c ar and help for the innocent of party and concludes that the church rendered this role to government agencies and wellbeing programmes. He makes a profo und statement by stating that Today, in many ways, the lost world does a better job of sympathize with for the needy than the church does. (1995111)Within this chapter, a theological perspective and foundation for the churchs mandate to be compound in the participation and the lives of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) will be investigated. Secondly the churchs potential and call towards a holistic, integrated missional approach for effective community development will be explored. Thirdly, the churchs methodologies and approaches within their current praxis of community involvement as well as possible shortfalls will be considered.This investigation will be based on a literature study, earlier victimization the work of Kysar (1991) which is acknowledged as a relatively old source, but used due to the large extent of his work in two Old and New Testament literature relating to the mandate of the church for social ministry. Other authors much(prenominal) as Kumalo (2001), Liebenberg (1996), Mathole (2005), Myers (2004) and Myers (1999a) will be consulted and conjectureed in this chapter and used to respect Kysar (1991). Due to the limitation of this study, no exegesis will be make. The sources used in this study will be comp ard in coiffure to identify similarities and contradictions in collection to formulate a theological foundation.a theological perspective and foundation for the churchs mandate to be involved in the community and the lives of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC)The churchs involvement in the community has been motivated from various authors viewpoints (August, 1999 Dreyer, 2004 Hessel, 1992 Kumalo, 2001 Liebenberg, 1996 Mathole, 2005 Myers, 1999b Myers, 1999a Mitchell, 2001 Perkins, 1995 Pierce, 2000 and Vilanculo, 1998). Various conclusions have been do, but primarily it has been stated that the church has a responsibility and not merely an option to be involved in the lives of the local community. The concentrate on of this study is not the church as such, and therefore this chapter will be swayed towards the role and mandate of the churchs involved in the marginalized and inadequate. The primary purpose of this discussion dish outs as an consciousness of firstly, the disclosure of theologys concern regarding the poor and marginalized and secondly the mandate and role of the church.Firstly, we need to explore the scriptural imperatives for the involvement of the church in the lives of the poor, trauma battalion and marginalized of order of magnitude with the aim to establish a perspective for a theological system of development. This will be d ace by establishing a canonical overview for understanding some of the biblical casts and attributes of perfection as well as some of rescuer teachings in this regard. Secondly, biblical imperatives for the involvement of the church specifically towards orphans and children will be explored.Due to the limitation of this study, the overview and discussion provided within this section are by no means comprehensive and are primarily focussed on the attributes of deity as revealed in both the Old and New Testament as a means to understand the forebode concern relating to the candor of the poor (poverty).Various Old Testament attributes of graven imageKysar (19917) calls for phrases such as images of divinity fudge and attributes of theology to be mum as at best, a charitable perception of a truthfulness that lies beyond the boundaries of language and conception. To Kysar, all the ways in which paragon is referred to, represent efforts to understand the absolute unknowable in terms of the cognise. The images of paragon in Scripture are mere metaphors as they attempt to speak of the divine humankind parallel to the human beings reality.For Kysar (19918), Mathole (200570) and wagon train Til (2004444) within the interpretations of the images and characteristics of God, there is a remarkably consistent theme of the biblical God who precautions passionately near the primitive welfare of all human beings. These images of God will be shortly discussed and evaluated in get off of other authors in order to establish a perspective for a theology of development for the undivided messiahian and the church in general.God the CreatorKysar (19918), Myers (1999a25) and Van Til (2004444) refer to Genesis 1 and 2 that endorse the image of the Creator God who forms reality through the power of divine word or act, or as explained by Myers (1999a25) making something out of nothing. God is depicted as the Creator of this button-d give birth matter (creation) and included in it, is the human being that is created to the image of God (Befus Bauman, 2004 Gordon Evans, 200217 Kysar, 19918 Myers, 1999a25, Van Til, 2004444). Both Kysar and Myers (1999a26) confirm the origin of the human reality as revealed in Genesis 1 and 2, as from the craftsmanship of God. They further consider the creation stories as ho nouring and celebrating the physical realm as a provide of such a divine creative act. To them, the image of God portrayed in these stories of creation is that of a Creator who is in a continuing family blood with creation. Within this creation, human beings are placed in a system of relationships with God, with self, community and the environment. God defines the physical dimension of life and existence for people in the calling to be fruitful and productive stewards of Gods creation (Myers, 1999a25). God is presented as maven who is pertain for the full range of human life including the physical welfare of all people (Kysar, 19918 Myers, 1999a26).According to Kumalo (2001133) at the centre of a theology for development lies the truth that every human being is made in the image of God. This promotes the task of a theology of development to restore and recover Gods image in humanity by helping each other to reflect human wholeness or image of God. For him, this human wholeness implies a concern for life that includes all aspects of human existence, the spiritual and physical dimensions.Kumalo (2001134) defines a theology of development as the comprehensive progression and well-being of individual serviceman as well as of the whole of creation, to include the immanent needs for human survival and well-being, the transcendent needs of human beings (the right to existence and empowerment in order to find meaning in ones life) and a personal relationship with God. This is within the understanding that salvation presupposes human needs. With a holistic understanding of salvation it implies that the well-being of creation is central to a theology of development (Kumalo, 2001134).God of the ExodusBoth Kysar (199110) and Myers (1999a31) refer to the course of history as altered by the intervention of God through the prophetic agent Moses. For Kysar, the ultimate revelation of the God of Israel is a historical one and it means that God attends to the historical c onditions for domain. These historical realities of human existence are precisely where humans encounter God the material reality of conviction and space becomes the medium through which an encounter with God is experienced. According to Myers (1999a30), the divine revelation experienced by Israel in the hegira is typical of the way in which God works in human life. To him, the exodus is more than a past event it portrays a model for how God always and everywhere acts for human well-being on a multiple level. Firstly, on a spiritual level, God is revealing himself and demonstrating his power in order for Israel to have faith and be faithful. Secondly on a socio-political level, it is the moving from slavery to freedom, from injustice to a just society, from dependence to independence. Thirdly on an economic level, moving from land owned by somebody else, to freedom in their own land and fourthly on a psychological level it is about self understanding as enslaved people and di scovering the inner understanding that with Gods help, they could be free people and become a nation (Myers, 1999a31).With the understanding of the role of the church as an agent for change and transformation, a theology of development includes the church that understands and fulfils the realities of human existence. This would imply the active role of the church within the understanding that human well-being is heighten through Gods involvement on a multiple level (spiritual, socio-political, economic and psychological level), through the dynamics of the churchs involvement.The Passionate GodAccording to Kysar (199112) and Myers (1999a31), Moses is called to the task of being the human agent in Gods liberation and the words and language of God. Kysar refers to Exodus 37 12 and 62 8 where we find attributes of God in human perception and emotions which portray an important image of the divine God. The verbs used are filled with sensitivity to the conditions of the people observed , witnessd, known and come down and the implications of these verbs reveal a God that is moved by the plight of the people. To him these verbs in like manner suggest Gods attentiveness to human welfare, and that God is moved by the physical, (social, economic and political) conditions of the people.Kysar (199112) refers to the Hebrew verb yadah used and interpreted as know in this text that means more than knowing in the sense of a cognitive perception. The Hebrew verb means to know in the sense of sharing in the reality of the known. In knowing the suffering of the people, God is quickened to declare that the divine reality participates in their life conditions. The image of God is not portrayed as a passive figure but of a God who is moved by the plight of people and He declares the drapedion to act on behalf of the people (Myers, 1999a31 Kysar, 199112). The act of God to free Israel is designed with one purpose in mind, namely to change the conditions of the people. The mode o f this action is through human agency when Moses is sent to execute Gods plan of action. The passionate God acts through humans who are commissioned to represent the divine will (Myers, 1999a31 Kysar, 199112).With the understanding of the role of Moses as a human agent in Gods liberation, it affirms the vital role to which humans are enlisted for the liberation cause to assist others for the sake of their own liberation. A theology of development includes the awareness of Gods understanding of the plight of people and his declaration and intent to act on behalf of the people through humans who are commissioned to represent the divine will.Advocate of JusticeKysar (199118), Donahue (20061) and Van Til (2004449) refer to the justice of God for human welfare as being bare in many ways in the Old Testament legal materials, but state that it is nowhere more radically portrayed than in the provision of the sabbatical and jubilee stratums. The sabbatical and jubilee years are related tra ditions in the Hebrew Scriptures to be found within the covenant code in Exodus 21 23 and in the Deuteronomic code (Deuteronomy 15). To Kysar, Donahue and Van Til, within the Sabbath year God is pictured as the sovereign of the people and as their social liberator. There are a number of provisions within the legislation for the seventh year. Slaves are to be released along with their families (Exodus 212 6). The land is to be given a sabbatical rest by leaving the fields fallow and any spontaneous produce during this year could be harvested by the stranger or the poor as in Exodus 2310 11. Within the Deuteronomic code there is provision for the care of the poor (Deuteronomy 151 18) which includes the cancellation of all debts, lending to the poor and the freeing of Hebrew slaves (Kysar, 199118 Van Til, 2004449).Van Til (2004449) reflects on the covenant code and the laws, and concludes that one senses a special concern for those who experience the greatest need the widow, the orphan and the alien as a number of laws are enacted to provide for them. He refers to Deuteronomy 154 5 as evidence that if the commandments concerning the provision for the poor were kept, the absence of poverty would result. He also relates this as the mandate that Gods people must serve the neediest among them by keeping the laws that relate to the covenant legislations of the Pentateuch. These were provided as laws, and not as options for compassion. He also refer to Thethe keeping of these and other covenant stipulations that would result in blessings for the whole nation of Israel, including material prosperity and the failure to keep them would result in a series of curses (2004452). While the means for these principles and responsibilities differ from society to society, they are still valid and ongoing as they demonstrate the just and merciful character of God (Van Til, 2004452).The God of the law that stands in solidarity with the poor and insists on their rights and l ordliness is portrayed through the legislations of the Old Testament law (Van Til, 2004452). God speaks in this legislation as one who identifies himself with the poor, the enslaved, and the dispossessed, as well as one who is concerned for the welfare of the natural environment. It can be interpreted as Gods way of indicating indebtedness and responsibility towards the poor and assistance that needs to be provided by the church to free them from poverty or to liberate (Kumalo, 2001134).Within this understanding of Gods attribute, a theology of development should be people-centred, based on their needs and dependent on human resources. Within Gods concern for social justice, a responsibility and bias is implied towards the suffering, the marginalized and the poor with the coexistent task of restoring their human wholeness. For Kumalo it is imperative to have a focus and bias towards the poor within a people-centred theology of development (2001314).God of the ProphetsKysar (199120) and Donahue (20063) refer to the classical prophets concurrence through their insistence that Gods precept of Israel encompasses the social life of the people. Demands for the just treatment of the needy, the obligations of the leaders of the nation for justice, the interrelatedness of worship and social morality, and the inclusiveness of Gods care for humans are among the prominent themes of the prophets. According to Kysar and Donahue, the prophets offer us an image of a God whose rule extends to the social realm. They further refer to the importance of this social rule of God that the prophets are forthright in declaring that the violation of that rule can only result in the punishment of the people. Hence, the prophets of the eighth and sixth centuries understood that the exiles of both the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah are the direct consequences of social injustice (Amos 31 2). To them, the violation of Gods will for social relationships is a m atter of utmost significance. Its punishment arises from the very reputation of God, for whom societal expressions are of paramount concern.Kumalo (2001135) emphasizes the role of the church as the voice of the poor and to speak on their behalf to government and society. He relates this to the role of the prophets, and it means that the church might at times be unpopular within the wider society or powerful, but it should not discourage, as a theology of development includes the voices of the poor to be echoed in public policy for justice and the responsibilities of government towards the poor and marginalized.God of the psalmists and ProverbsThe social concern of the God of the Hebrew Scriptures is further confirmed by the informative nature of the wisdom literature, where it is clear that it is in worship that people give clearest expression to their image of God (Kyser 199123) How worship is done tells us something vital about peoples understanding of the one to whom worship is addressed (199123). For him, within the variety of themes and moods depicted in the Psalms there is a consistency in the portrayal of God, which in disco biscuit fits the pattern of the images mentioned supra.He (199123) refers to the God addressed in the psalms as frequently represented as an advocate for and a rescuer of the poor. He underscores passages such as God rising up the needy (10741) and him being the saviour of the poor (346). Also, the afflicted are defended by God (14012) he is present with the needy (10931) he reverses the human conditions of want and deprivation (1135 9) and he rescues the needy (1495 9).According to him (199123) the psalmists who address God in these hymns repeatedly portray themselves as poor (99-10 861 2, 7). The Psalms are the petitions of the afflicted (2516), the needy (3510), the lowly (1476), the downtrodden (7421), the orphans and widows (686), the children (1166), and the barren woman (1139). For Kysar, the impression one gains from this overview of the self-identification of the psalmists is that God is one who hear the cries of the needy and the oppressed (199123). Indeed, it is God of the exodus, who declares in Exodus 37 8 I have observed the misery of my peopleand have perceive their cryI know their sufferings, and I have come down to deliver them (NLT1996).For Myers (1999a33) the literature from the Proverbs and Psalms is also a summary of learnings and wisdom of Gods faithful people concerning right and just relationships and demonstrates these peoples experiences of Gods rule as the absolute. Social relationships reflected as Gods concern, surface throughout the Psalms and Proverbs. It demonstrates Gods interest in the everyday things of life such as eating, drinking, playing, crying and laughing. The human inability to see God as being active and interested in daily life is referred to by Myers (1999a33) as a serious weakness, it is as if we believe that God is absent from or disinterested in this pa rt of life. He further refers to this inability as a cause of a serious blind spot that is often reflected in the churchs practice and interpretation of development.For Kumalo (2001136) a theology of development must generate a spirituality that encompasses the total human existence, which further brings hope, strength and power to the people and marginalized within the understanding that God is involved and interested in the everyday things of life. The attributes of God in the development of spirituality should stress issues such as freedom, love, holiness, dignity, power and creativity as these elements are all part of human existence and should be the basis of all peoples lives (Kumalo, 2001136).The attributes of God, revealed by the life and teachings of the Nazarene ChristAccording to Kysar (199131), within the New Testament, the dynamics of the Old Testament attributes of God are enhanced by the life and teachings of delivery boy Christ. Jesus whole earthly existence echoed his and his Fathers love and care for the poor and needy, which included children. For Kysar, the attributes of God revealed through Jesus Christ teachings and primary concerns, directly relates to Gods concern for humanity. For Kysar, the nature of Jesus ministry, further relates to the nature of Gods mission in the world.Kysar (199132) reflects on the ministry of Jesus, as a revelation of the attributes of God and believes that when seen in its totality, it is a clear expression of Gods concern for the whole human existence. Both Kysar and Myers (1999a35) reflect on Jesus actions and words which addressed every aspects of human life, which made it a holistic mission.Kysar primarily seeks to confirm three aspects within the New Testament. These aspects are firstly the God who cares for the whole person, secondly the God who cares for all persons and thirdly, the God who identifies with suffering humanity. Due to the inter-related nature of these aspects, they will not be separatel y discussed, but be referred to within an overview of the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and the attributes of God evident from it.A concern with humanitys physical welfareJesus concern for the physical welfare of people is considered by Kysar (199132) and Mathole (200592) in light of the numerous healing stories, which subdue the Gospels both in number and strategic locations (Mark 121 212). These healings ranged from a fever (Mark 130 31) to the raising of the dead (John 11), which fit to Kysar suggests that any physical grief evoked the attention of Jesus.Further to the healing stories Kysar (199132) considers the storeys of Jesus feeding the multitudes, recorded by all four Gospels (Matthew 1413 21, Matthew 1532 37, Mark 630 44, Mark 81 10, Luke 910 17 and John 61 13). He acknowledges that these accounts have meaning beyond the satisfying of hunger, but appeals for the primary meaning not be lost and refers to these accounts as demonstrating Jesus care for the ful filling of a basic human need (199133). To both Kysar (199135) and Mathole (200592) this reveals God as centrally concerned with the physical conditions of humans and further reveals Gods acting to reverse bodily suffering.A concern with humanitys aroused welfareKysar (199135) relates Gods care for the emotionally afflicted to the several acts of forgiveness (Luke 736 50). According to him, the forgiveness of sin is addressing the emotional affliction of guilt (199136).He also considers Jesus acts of exorcism as emotional healing and interprets these as neurosis or psychosis (199136). He refers to the physical affliction demon possession could have, such as infliction of wounds (Mark 55), the loss of basic skills such as speech and hearing (Matthew 1222), seizures and convulsions (Luke 435 942), and multiple personalities (Mark 59). Due to the limitation of this study, Kysars interpretation of exorcism and demon possession will not be elaborated, but primarily considered in light of the pain and suffering demon possession entailed both physically and emotionally.Both Kysar (199136) and Mathole (200592) concludes that through Jesus acts of exorcism he expressed Gods concern for emotional health in the same way as he offered the message of the Kingdom of God to pitiful and hopeless people. It meant healing, forgiveness, acceptance and hope for people that were entrapped by their emotional conditions and societal standards.A concern with humanitys economic welfareFor Kysar (199137) Jesus attention to the poor, relates to the expression of Gods care for afflictions that resulted from impoverishment. Both Kysar (199137) and Mathole (200575) mention that Jesus spent a hand out of time among the common people of Palestine (Luke 617) which was according to Kysar, considered a land with vast numbers of poor residents. Secondly, Kysar considers that Jesus spent much of his time with the poor, as reflected in the way Jesus spoke of poverty through the parables. To hi m, these parables were very believable as they were realistic pictures of the common life and clearly understood by his audiences. Such parables would include the parable of the tenants (Matthew 2133 43), the lost coin (Luke 158 9) and the figure of Lazarus as a common quite a little of such a pitiful creature (Luke 1619 31).While Kysar (199138) acknowledges other teachings of Jesus that relate to poverty and health, both Donahue (20065) and Kysar emphasise Lukes presentation of Jesus. For them, Lukes account reflects Jesus extensive attention to questions such as the dangers of wealth (Luke 1213 21), the proper use of riches (Luke 191 10) and the call to surrender possessions for the kingdom of God (Luke 1818 -23).While acknowledging the controversial debate over Jesus own background of poverty, both Kysar (199138) and Mathole (200574) considers Jesus shared solidarity with the poor of his time, in light of his ministry as a ministry for the poor by the poor. They relate this to their understanding of Jesus and his followers lives of poverty during his time of ministry and promote them as a group that depended upon each other for shelter and sustenance (Luke 81 3). Kysar refers to Walter Pilgrim while Mathole refers to Padilla who considered Jesus and his disciples as belonging to a group in society that did not produce their own economic sustenance, but lived from the respect, gratitude and charity of others. Van Til (2004452) does not consider Jesus and his disciples amongst the poorest, as he reflects on the fishermen of Galilee as championship owners, and Jesus and his disciples giving alms, rather than receiving them. While no clear conclusion in this regard could be drawn, the primary message of all the authors considered, referred to Jesus total solidarity with the poor. In the work of Carillo (2008n.p), he relates the ministry of Jesus to the ethos of the way in which Jesus lived his life. Carillo (2008n.p) considers the poor the hallmark of h is true identity as the healing, feeding, preaching to the poor was prophesied by Isaiah as evidence of Gods presence.For Kysar (199139) and Mathole (200591) the message of Jesus had a particular relevance to the poor. To both, the establishment of the Kingdom of God meant transformation and implied a time of prosperity and teemingness as the reign of God in the world was believed to bring changes in society. The message of hope related to the poor as a change in their circumstances and was perceived as the good news for the poor (Luke 722). Kysar concludes that the attributes of God reflected in the ministry of Jesus are one who cares for the economic welfare of the people (199139). To Kysar, Mathole and Van Til (2004452) the outpourings of Gods heart that feels the pain of entrapment of poverty is evident in Jesus words and deeds.A concern with humanitys social welfareFor Kysar (199140) and Mathole (200593), the social implications of sickness and demon possession, and the social integration as a result of Jesus healings and exorcisms, represented Gods concern for the marginalized of society. Both Kysar and Mathole refer to the practice where physically afflicted persons were removed from mainstream society which was due to legislation regarding holiness and cleanliness. Accounts reflecting Jesus acts of healing that resulted in social integration are the leper (Mark 140 44) and the woman with the flow of blood (Mark 525 34), to name but two. Both Kysar and Mathole conclude that Jesus healings besides being physical, also represented Gods concern for the marginalized of society and embodied Gods actions to liberate humans (Mathole, 200592).Kysar (199140) also considers the implications of Jesus persistent failure to observe social custom as he generally acted in ways that contradicted the social divisions of his society. Both Kysar and Mathole (200593) emphasise this by referring to accounts such as Jesus touching the leper (Mark 141) by which he violates the social and religious law regarding leprosy. Furthermore they refer to Jesus using a Samaritan as the hero of his parable (Luke 1030 37) and Jesus conversation with a Samaritan woman (John 4 26) which in essence challenged the hatred of the Jews and Samaritans of one another. To Kysar and Mathole Jesus brought down a social barrier by having dinner with people that were questionable in their religious purity which could endanger Jesus own purity (Mark 215 16), he treated women with dignity, respect and equality and included them among his disciples (Luke 81 3).Kysar (199146), Gordon and Evans (20027) reflect on the inclusive behaviour Jesus revealed by ministering to all and his affiliations with those that are excluded by society due to political, religious and social reasons. Kysar refers to Jesus being called a glutton and drunkard, a friend of evaluate collectors and sinners because of his free associations with social outcasts (Matthew 1119 Luke 734). In their understan ding of this, Kysar, Gordon and Evans consider accounts that reflect Jesus spent a good deal of his time with the despised class of workers. These included Jesus calling such to take a place among his followers (Matthew 103), he associated himself with those labelled as sinners (Mark 215 17, Luke 738 151) and with the tax collectors which was despised and hated in the first-century Palestine (Matthew 910 11 103). Over and above this, Jesus advocated for a prostitute (Matthew 2131) and accepted the love and gratitude of such (Luke 737 50).Kysar (199146) considers Jesus advocacy on behalf of women in Lukes account of Jesus rejection of the custom of divorce of his time (Luke 737 50) and Jesus protest against the inhumane treatment of women in the divorce process (Mark 102 9, Matthew 193 8). He considers this not just as a mere rejection of the common view of women, but as acts in protest against it.By no means are these a comprehensive overview, but they are considered sufficien t accounts for Kysar (199150), Gordon and Evans (20027) to reveal the inclusive nature of Jesus ministry. For Kysar and Mathole (200593), the understanding of the inclusive nature of Jesus ministry relates to the nature of God, as a God who is concerned with all persons, regardless of their social, moral, religious, economic, or ethical standing. Through these accounts, Jesus demonstrated Gods divine solidarity with humanity and which also confirms Kysars aspect of a God who cares for all human beings.Kysar (199151) and Mathole (200593) also consider these same accounts as evidence of Jesus identification with the poor and a inference of his solidarity and identification with those he served. For Kysar and Mathole, Jesus illustrated with his own life what is meant by being a servant of others (Mark 1042 45) which also confirms Kysars aspect of a God that identifies with the suffering of humanity.The metaphor father for God as used by Jesus, was according to Kysar (199141) consider ed as an assault on the authority and role of fathers in the structure of the household. He refers to Jesus statement in Matthew 239 And dont address anyone here on earth as Father, for only God in enlightenment is your spiritual Father (NLT1996). For him, the attribute of God invoked by this statement was a direct denying of the absolute authoritative role and power of the father in the basic unit of a family. This held the promise of liberation for women and children and their oppression from an absolute patriarchal figure of their time. Kysar (199151) refers to this same metaphor of father in Jesus invitation to address God with this intimate term (Luke 112) as an indication of a God who identifies with human needs and therefore also relates to Kysars aspect of a God who identifies with the suffering of humanity.Kysar (199141) concludes Jesus role as social protester with many implications for Chri

Procedural Fairness in Unfair Dismissal

Procedural Fairness in Unfair DismissalRepeal of the Employment Act 2002 ( gainsay resoluteness) Regulations 2004 A herald-In October 2004 the organisation introduced a statutory minimum disciplinary and un justlyeousness procedure dealing with disputes in the workplace. These procedures and related rules atomic number 18 set out in the Employment Act 2002 (Dispute gag rule) Regulations 2004 and state that employers must(prenominal) follow a minimum hammock and disciplinary procedure in the workplace or otherwise expiration go away be automatic all in ally unfair. When rescue a hold at the Employment Tribunal for unfair expelling, employees are also entitled to additional wages if these disciplinary and pouch procedures are non adhered to. Although the aim of the Regulations was to raise informal resolution of disputes, many employers felt that they were too complicated and did non achieve the coveted aim. Gibbons (2007 pg.24)1 sums up this tantrum,The procedures are seen as a prelude to employment tribunals, rather than a way of resolving problems in the workplaceThe Employment Bill 2007 wherefore recommends a repeal of the Regulations for what is hoped will be a more straightforward regime likely to come into force in April 2009.The RegulationsA standard dismissal procedure as per the Regulations involves the following tierce stairs. The first is a letter which must be sent to the employee setting out the reason for dismissal and inviting them to a go throughing at a convenient time and place. The employee must be given time in which to consider the letter and then has a art having done so to take all reasonable steps to attend the meeting. The second step involves the actual meeting which has to be conducted in a path which enables both employer and the employee to explain their object lesson. After the meeting the employee must be notified of the decision and exitd a right of challenge. The third step would be the call down proc ess and if the employee wishes to appeal, they must inform the employer who will then invite them to an appeal meeting. The onus is on the employee to take all reasonable steps to attend this appeal meeting and as far as is practicable a more senior manager from the organisation should attend the appeal meeting.The appeal meeting must be conducted in the manner in which enables both the employer and the employee to explain their field of study. After the meeting the employee must be notified of the final decision. During every meeting in the process, the employee has a right to be accompany by a work colleague or a trade coalescence official. This companion whitethorn address the hearing, confer with the employee during the hearing and may also sum up the employees case but must not answer questions on behalf of the employee.In the case of a unrighteousness against an employer the same steps must be followed with the letter sent from employee to employer stating the nature of t he grievance and asking for a meeting to be held. Where the employee has already left employment the Regulations provide for a modified procedure that does not require the Step 2 meeting.The problems created by the RegulationsWhen the Regulations came into force on the 1st October 2004 the governing resolved to revisit them after ii years. The Department of Trade and Industry confirmed this in its Success at Work Report (2007 pg. 8)2This is a key part of DTIs work to modify regulation, by removing compliance costs and complexity, and addressing irritants for business and others affected by employment law, while ensuring that employee rights are protected.The government then commissioned an independent report on the 12th December 2006 written by Michael Gibbons who was asked to assess all employment dispute resolution procedures including suggestions for adapting the Regulations if he found them not to be fit for purpose. He interviewed over 60 employers, employees and intermediar ies involved in dispute resolution. Gibbons in his report entitled Better Dispute Resolution (2007 pg.5) states3,In conducting the Review I was touch by the overwhelming consensus that the intentions of the 2004 Regulations were sound and that in that respect had been a genuine attempt to keep them simple, and yet as formal legislation they have failed to produce the coveted policy outcome. This is perhaps a classic case of good policy, but in providely inflexible and prescriptive regulation.It became apparent that the regulations did not state clearly what a written grievance was or what it was to bear. With no specific guidance on this, parties inspected for procedural hearings at the ET to establish whether the claimant actually put their grievance in constitution and whether all of the claims that were found in their Claim Form had previously been evidenced in the grievance letter. The respondents were claiming that this was not the case and therefore there was no case to answer. at that placefore although the procedures were clear as to the steps to follow in bringing a dispute insufficient guidance was given about each demonstrate leaving Tribunals with an increase in the number and length of proceedings. Gibbons explains the difficulty with identifying what constitutes a grievance letter (2007 pg.8),comments in resignation letters and in 360-degree feedback forms have been held to meet the requirements, so some employers feel it is necessary to check closely and investigate any written communication that might be construed as a grievanceAlthough the intention of the regulations was for early informal resolution of disputes, the drafting of the Step 1 letter and consequent meetings in practice escalate many issues taking up management time and proving stressful for employees. Also the trio step process as outlined above was not always adequate in all circumstances. Small businesses in particular have complained about the formal, one size fits al l approach of the regulations. Gibbons explains (2007 pg. 8),the appeal stage is an unnecessary burden, especially for small businesses. The appeal will often be to the same person who made the original decision. It corporation also be difficult in cases where employees have left the workplace. unmatchable business felt it necessary to follow the three-step procedures for each of their Christmas temporary staff before they left a process which added no value.The main thrust of the underground to the current regime is that it has created an unhealthy overlap between the resolution of disputes and the litigation procedure which should as far as possible be kept separate. For usage the regulations stipulate that before a claim is lodged at the Employment Tribunal (ET) a grievance letter must be sent to the employer within three months of the alleged dismissal or conduct. Any breach of the procedure would allow the Tribunal to grant up to 50% increase if the fault was that of the em ployer or 50% reduction in the award depending on whether the fault was that of the employee. Of bloodline apart from the fact that it is not always easy to ascertain whose fault led to a breach of procedure such(prenominal) stipulations and penalties misbegotten that litigation has to be considered at an early stage when resolution of the dispute should be paramount. Gibbon states (2007 pg.25),Both braggy and small businesses have reported that the number of formal disputes has risen. The Review has heard that 30 to 40% increases have been typical in the retail sector.Further complications go up where there are multiple claims for example in an equal pay case and the three step process has to be repeated many multiplication creating an unnecessary administrative burden. The same burden is also felt where and employer seeks to follow the disciplinary steps and at the same time the employee also seeks to pursue a grievance.It is not always clear how the two strands of the Regulat ions should operate in such circumstances, and employers trick feel compelled to hold excessive song of meetings and write excessive numbers of formal letters to be sure of fulfilling the procedural requirements4The proposed reformsAs a result of the Gibbons Review, the government activity held a consultation and the responses received formed the basis of the gravel reform proposals published in the Employment Bill 2007 which has received royal assent and is now the Employment Act 2008.The first major reform is for the Regulations to be repealed in their entirety in April 2009 and replaced with a revised ACAS mandate of Practice (the write in code) which has been agreed in draft form. There will also be non statutory guidance also provided by ACAS. ACAS stands for the Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service and currently offers employees an arbitration service as an alternative to resorting to proceedings. Also it has always provided a edict for resolving disputes but i t is only now being adapted and incorporated into statute. In actual fact the revised ACAS code provides for the same three step procedure but does not incorporate the same penalties and conditions as the Regulations. There have also been some additional requirements which seem to lean towards ensuring that employees digest middling. The draft Code is designed to provide basic practical guidance for disciplinary and grievance procedures but is limited as it will not move over to dismissals as a result of redundancy5 or expiration of a fixed term contract.The Code describes the remit it covers6,Disciplinary situations include misconduct and/or poor performanceGrievances are headaches, problems or complaints that employees raise with their EmployersIt suggests in the Foreword of the Code7 that employers and employees should try to resolve disputes between them. However if they cannot, they should seek the help of an independent third companionship inside or outside the organisati on. The Code provides that where the Employment Tribunal must ascertain compliance with the Code it will do this on a case by case basis taking into bankers bill the size and resources of the employer. Therefore unlike the Regulations there is no expectation that all business will espouse with every provision in the Code providing greater flexibility for employers.In relation to disciplinary procedures the first step is to establish the facts of each case by collating evidence and holding an investigatory meeting if necessary. The Code then states8,If it is decided that there is a disciplinary case to answer, the employee should be notified of this in writing. This notification should contain sufficient information about the alleged misconduct or poor performance and its possible consequences to enable the employee to prepare to answer the case at a disciplinary meeting raw provisions provide for evidence collated including witness statements to be provided by the employer with th e letter requesting a disciplinary meeting. Also an employee may call their own witnesses. The statutory right to be accompanied to this meeting still stands however the Codes emphasis on reasonableness is evidenced where it states9,However, it would not normally be reasonable for workers to insist on being accompanied by a companion whose presence would not prejudice the hearing nor would it be reasonable for a worker to ask to be accompanied by a companion from a remote geographical location if someone qualified and willing was available on site.The dispute Regulations had provided that on appeal the employer only had to make one attempt to reconvene the meeting however under the Code the employer has to show that the employee has persistently been unable or unwilling to attend before a decision can be made in their absence.10 If the employee decides to appeal, grounds of appeal in writing must be submitted to the employer.11 This requirement was not found in the Regulations and the root behind it is to ensure that further time is not pass discussing issues that have already been covered in the first meeting.In a case of a grievance for example instead of the emphasis on a Step 1 grievance letter, the revised Code states12,If it is not possible to resolve a grievance informally employees should raise the matter formally and without reasonless delayThe employee should inform the employer of the grievance preferably in writing and the letter should be addressed to the line manager. Unlike the Regulations, a claim would not be barred in absence of a grievance letter although a failure to send this letter would be a breach of the Code and may lead to a reduction in the award.The Code states that a meeting must be heard pursuant to the letter and that the employee must have the right to be accompanied by a colleague or trade union official. As with the disciplinary procedure, the requirement here is that the right to be accompanied is reasonable. During the m eeting the employer can ask for an adjournment in post to carry out an investigation. There is also a right of appeal and subsequently the employee can decide to take the matter further and pursue the case in the Employment Tribunal.The pertly regime will not hold a dismissal to be mechanically unfair if there has been a breach in procedure. Employment Tribunals will have to decide cases on what is fair and reasonable and will have discretionary powers to adjust awards of up to 25% if either employer or employee has not followed the ACAS code. In relation to this provision the government report Resolving Disputes in the Workplace Consultation (May 2008 pg.16) it states,This will be a power rather than a duty in order to allow the employment tribunals discretion to apply it in the interests of justice and equityIt is hoped that these reforms will give a higher level of flexibility in resolving work place disputes and various businesses can tailor the new regime to their specific e nquires. The Government has also agreed as part of the reform to invest 37M into the ACAS helpline system in order to provide early mediation for workplace disputes that would otherwise result in tribunal claims. Resolving Disputes in the Workplace Consultation (May 2008 pg.16)13 states,The government considers the way forward should be a short non prescriptive Statutory Code setting out the principles of what and employer and employee must do supported by fuller statutory guidanceThe idea is that the new statutory code will provide guidance for employment tribunals and the non statutory guidance will be used by employers and employees. Where a grievance arises during a disciplinary process, the disciplinary may be suspended or both can be dealt with concurrently if related. The Code does not cover collective grievances which must be dealt with under the agreed collective grievances procedures agreed with trade unions.The likely effect of these reforms on employers and employeesIt is unlikely that the Code will have a major change on the dispute resolution process in the work place. The code incorporates the same three steps that were found in the Regulations. There is still a penalty of an increase or decrease in the award up to 25% depending on whether the employer or employee is at fault.Because the employee is likely to carry a reduction in compensation of up to 25 % the pressure to ensure a grievance letter is sent still remains. Although unlike the Regulations, the claim is not barred due to failure to lodge a grievance, the number of grievances brought by employees is not likely to be reduced for so long as there remains a penalty, albeit the employee at the grievance stage may not have considered litigation. So arguably there may not inescapably be reduction of time spent on hearing and processing grievances in the workplace.Also with the repeal of the Regulations there is no automatically unfair dismissal because of non compliance. Many have argued that this places fewer restrictions on unscrupulous employers therefore increasing the likelihood of litigation. There would need to be clear communication by the government and business to their employees as to how the new regime will work and arrangements need to be put in place for the transition between the old and new procedures.As far as practical points flowing from the provisions of the ACAS Code, the following would ensure that employers are taking the right steps to ensure compliance although there still remains areas of uncertainty that will only be made clear once the Code is put into practice.Mediation training should be provided for homophile Resources staff to act as internal mediators and consider compiling a list of good mediators outside the organisation.In the Introduction of the Code, it states that employees should be involved where appropriate in the development of rules and procedures so to this end it would be prudent if employers hold consultation meetings with employees and their Trade Union Representatives during the transition period between the Regulations and the Code.Guidelines should be provided as to how to provide a reasonable opportunity to call witnesses (Clause 12) and establish in policy that that the right to be accompanied is subject to considerations as to reasonableness (Clause 15). These issues are clearly subjective and would vary on a case by case basis and are therefore likely to prove controversial or even problematicGuidelines should be drafted as to when and under what circumstances the employee has shown inability or unwillingness to attend a disciplinary meeting without good cause. divers(prenominal) people should oversee the investigatory and later the disciplinary process.In order to facilitate early resolution of disputes as well as implementing the Code the government also intends for ACAS to provide a helpline where simple disputes can be dealt with over the phone or by internet. This extends the existi ng right to mitigation that parties must be notified of in any dispute. However the issue is ensuring that ACS has the necessary funds and staff to successfully fulfil this role. Staff must be well trained in providing employment advice and negotiating settlement between parties. Another proposal is that the Employment Tribunal Application process should happen via the helpline giving claimants access to advice on their claim and alternatives to litigation.not all involved in the dispute resolution process favour these reforms. In the government report Resolving Disputes in the Workplace Consultation14 it statesOpponents of repeal include a number of Trade Unions, representatives of vulnerable workers and individuals. Many cited the benefits of having a standard required procedure in all workplaces which operated to the benefit of workers in all types of organisations and support good practice.From the point of view of an employee, the fear is that the new regime and its emphasis o n reasonableness leaves too much to the discretion of the employer. This coupled with the removal of the automatically unfair provision has left the issue of unfairness to the Employment Tribunal who will access the situation based on many factors other than breaches in the code including the size and resources of the employer. There is therefore an element of uncertainty in the new provisions certainly for the employee but for the employer as well. In the Legal process Groups response to the government consultation (June 2007) it states,15Repeal of the Employment Act 2002 (Dispute Resolution) Regulations 2004 (the regulations), will not improve the poor position of the many, low paid, non-unionised, workers in the labour market. The government should act to protect the most vulnerable by encouraging trade union organisation and by other legislative measures.The concern of the Group is that the governments emphasis on mediation could lead to vulnerable employees losing their right to a formal hearing to resolve disputes. In order for alternatives to litigation to be properly considered good quality advice needs to be available to all however only a third of the working universe of discourse are trade union members. A lack of access to legal aid will mean that non members will not have proper asylum to legal advice. It seems unlikely that the ACAS helpline proposal will cater for all workplace disputes.The Code has also been seen as unfair towards employees as it does not take into account that in reality there is rarely a balance of power between employer and employee. Employers have more resources and employees tend to already feel intimidated when bringing a grievance. A simple dispute could still have as its underlying cause a long term abusive policy against workers which of course cannot be resolved through a telephone conversation with an ACAS mediator. Indeed there are many categories of workers including the elderly and disabled or those with langua ge difficulties who would need face to face advice. The throw away report states,16We have to question whether the DTI is taking an even-handed approach to the resolution of work-related disputes or whether it has bowed to pressure from the powerful employers lobby.The overall view therefore of those acting for employees is that although the Regulations were unnecessarily complex they could have been simplified without being repealed as they provided minimum protection for all workers, whether or not they were trade union members. The principal reason for issuing the Regulations was because it was found that many employers did not have any procedures in place for resolving dispute and a repeal of the regulations could mean a return to this situation. There are also emf problems with the right of employees to bring claims being infringed where it is proposed that the Tribunal application system should also be touch on through the ACAS helpline. LAG notes17,It would be inappropriat e for a service point that had an aim of providing advice and guidance to also act in a gatekeeping role for potential ET claims. Combined with the suggestion that the new advice service should be able to over-ride or contradict the advice given by a representative11, this would damage any integrity generated forsuch a service.ConclusionClearly the repeal of the Dispute Resolution Regulations 2004 and the implementation of the ACAS Code due to take effect in April 2009 is not without its difficulties. The Governments aim is to reduce the amount of claims being taken to the Tribunal although it recognises that dispute resolution is in itself only one strand. The other is revising the law in relation to unfair dismissal and making the Tribunal processes itself more efficient.The Code is similar to the Regulations in that it mirrors a three step process. However the onus is often put on the employer to determine what is reasonable which has the effect of the Tribunal later claiming bre ach of the regulations or the employee claiming that their rights have been infringed. The employer therefore has a burden to act reasonably and the vagueness of this term although creates more flexibility to employers will produce greater uncertainty. Only time will tell whether the Code will in fact encourage a conflict resolution culture and reduce the administrative burden on employers as its drafters intended.BIBLIOGRAPHYACAS plan for Consultation indite Code of Practice on Discipline and Grievance (Nov 2008) http//www.acas.org.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=961p=0BERR -Resolving Disputes in the Workplace Consultation Government reception (May 2008)DTI-Better Dispute Resolution A Review of Employment Dispute Resolution in Great Britain- Michael Gibbons (March 2007)-http//www.berr.gov.uk/files/file38516.pdfDTI-Success at work resolving disputes in the workplace A consultation- (March 2007)DTI-Success at work resolving disputes in the workplace A consultation- Response of the Legal A ction Group (2007)Is it the end of the road for Statutory Minimum Dispute resolution Procedures Nick Hine May 2008)http//www.tcii.co.uk/images/upload/guest_article_pdfs/11ganick_hine2ddpdf_2173.pdfUnited Kingdom New Acas Code Of Practice on Disciplinary And Grievances Article by Val Dougan Dundas and Wilson Solicitors 28 November 2008www.personneltoday.com11 DTI-Better Dispute Resolution A Review of Employment Dispute Resolution in Great Britain- Michael Gibbons (March 2007)-http//www.berr.gov.uk/files/file38516.pdf2 DTI-Success at work resolving disputes in the workplace A consultation- March 20073 DTI-Better Dispute Resolution A Review of Employment Dispute Resolution in Great Britain- Michael Gibbons )March 2007)http//www.berr.gov.uk/files/file38516.pdf4 Gibbons Review pg. 275 Employers must consult the ACAS book on redundancy handling6 ACAS Draft for Consultation Draft Code of Practice on Discipline and Grievance http//www.acas.org.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=961p=07 The Foreword of the Code is not legally binding but constitutes best practice8 Clause 9, ACAS Draft Code of Practice on Discipline and Grievance 20089Clause 15, ACAS Draft Code of Practice on Discipline and Grievance 200810 Clause 24 ACAS Draft Code of Practice on Discipline and Grievance 200811 Clause 25 ACAS Draft Code of Practice on Discipline and Grievance 200812 Clause 32 ACAS Draft Code of Practice on Discipline and Grievance 200813 BERR -Resolving Disputes in the Workplace Consultation Government Response (May 2008)14 BERR Resolving Disputes in the Workplace Consultation Government Response May 200815 DTI-Success at work resolving disputes in the workplace A consultation- Response of the Legal Action Group16 LAG Report Pg.217 LAG Report pg.5

Comparing the Female Journey in Children on Their Birthdays and Weltys

The Female Journey in Children on Their Birthdays and A languid Path   Males and females have been treated differently throughout all of time.  Race and looks have also been stereotyped.  In this paper I will be talk about two different girls with two different races, looks, and ages.  In the stories, Children on Their Birthdays, and A Worn Path, the two main characters are girls on a journey with only themselves to lead the way.  Throughout their journey the women come across obstacles, estimable times, and also prejudice attacks against their look, sex, and race.         In Children on Their Birthdays, Miss Bobbit is a 10 year old, very attractive white girl that is journeying for a job.  She is treated with much... ...ney with only themselves to lead the way.  Throughout their journey the girls come across obstacles, good times, and also prejudice attacks against their look, sex, and race.         Wor ks Cited  Capote, Truman, Children on Their Birthdays. AtlantaPeachtree Publishers, Ltd.,1986. Welty, Eudora, A Worn Path. AtlantaPeachtree Publishers, Ltd., 1986.

Problems in the United States Educational System Essay -- essays resea

Problems in the united States Educational SystemToday, the way the educational system works in the U.S. concerns a large number of people in this arena. "Only 25% of adults have a great deal of cartel in the people running education, according to the General Social Survey, down from 49% in 1974" (Russel 4). A lot of discussions have been held to find the best slipway to improve learn methods. At the same time, people recognize that a truly valuable solution to increase the level of education in the United States is to look at some problems that cause difficulties and hamper the enhancement of the quality of education. The first step is to define these problems. As in every country, the U.S. wants to develop its depicted object standards in education and wants them to be high. This has always been a government function. Being democratic, the government is trying to fit the qualities of democracy into the way to set these standards. Of course, this is not an docile tas k since this country has a very diverse population. To please everybody has always been an almost impossible task. Despite this impossibility, national standards have already been set. "If a visitor from another nation was dropped into an American public school classroom without knowing the state or the region, he or she would be likely to see the same lesson taught in the same way to children of the same age" (Ravitch 9). Everything seems right except the fact that the abilities of children are diametric. Not everybody is able to study at a college not everybody wants to continue being educated. It is obvious that every country wants to produce as many educated people as possible. But, at the same time, every country needs workers because, regardless of the fast development of technology, there is still a great necessity for human labor. To satisfy all the necessities of the country, the government should provide different kinds of education. This does not mean that we ne ed to eliminate all of the standards they could be set in each field of education. Although standards are set, there is still a very big difference in teaching methods in different schools. Perhaps, the most serious problem starts in high schools some schools provide a higher(prenominal) level of education than others. Students from most city schools graduate with the confidence in their knowledge their level of educati... ... 1998 45-47. Gray, Kenneth. "The baccalaureate game Is it right for all teens?" Phi Delta Kappa Apr. 1996 528+. McEachern, William A. "The Max for the Minimum." The teaching economist. Issue 15. Spring 1998. Nelson, F. Howard. "How and How Much the U.S. Spends On K-12 Education An International Comparison." Mar. 1996 n. pag. Online. Internet. 9 Mar.1998. Available http//www.aft.org/research/reports/interntl/sba.htm. Ravitch, Diane. "50 states, 50 standards? The continuing need for national spontaneous standards in education." T he Brookings Review Summer 1996 6+. Rehder, Robert R. "Education and Training Have the Japanese Beaten Us Again?" Personnel Journal Jan. 1983 42. Russel, Cheryl. "Whats wrong with schools?" American Demographics Sep. 1996 4+. Sinitsyn, Maxim I. "The Results of a Test." msinitssiue.edu (30 Mar. 1998). Smith, Greg. "How to beat the SAT/ACT blues" Career World Nov. 1995 13+. Sternberg, Robert J. "Extra Credit for Doing Poorly." New York Times 25 Aug. 1997, late ed. sec.A 23. "Strengths and weaknesses of American education." Phi Delta Kappa Apr. 19